Louis Althusser

In his essay, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, Louis Althusser demonstrates that in order to exist, a social formation is required to essentially, continuously and perpetually reproduce the productive forces (labour-power), the conditions of production and the relations of production. The reproduction of productive forces is ensured by the wage system which pays a minimum amount to the workers so that they appear to work day after day, thereby limiting their vertical mobility.The reproduction of the conditions of production and the reproduction of the relations of production happens through the State Apparatuses which are insidious machinations controlled by the capitalist ruling ideology in the context of a class struggle to repress, exploit, extort and subjugate the ruled class. The Marxist spatial metaphor of the edifice, describes a social formation, constituted by the foundational infrastructure i. e. , the economic base on which stands the superstructure comprising o f two floors: the Law-the State (politico-legal) and Ideology.Althusser extends this topographical paradigm by stating that the Infrastructural economic base is endowed with an â€Å"index of effectivity† which enables it to ultimately determine the functioning of the superstructure. He scrutinizes this structural metaphor by discussing the superstructure in detail. A close study of the superstructure is necessitated due to its relative autonomy over the base and its reciprocal action on the base. Althusser regards the State as a repressive apparatus which is used by the ruling class as a tool to suppress and dominate the working class.According to Althusser, the basic function of the Repressive State Apparatus (Heads of State, government, police, courts, army etc. ) is to intervene and act in favour of the ruling class by repressing the ruled class by violent and coercive means. The Repressive state apparatus (RSA) is controlled by the ruling class, because more often than n ot, the ruling class possesses State power. Althusser takes the Marxist theory of the State forward by distinguishing the repressive State Apparatus from the Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA).The ISAs consist of an array of institutions and multiple realities that propagate a wide range of ideologies such as Religious ISA, Educational ISA, Family ISA, Legal ISA, Political ISA, Communications ISA, Cultural ISA etc. He accentuates the differences between the RSA and the ISAs as follows: 1. The RSA functions as a unified entity (an organized whole) as opposed to the ISA which is diverse and plural. However, what unites the disparate ISAs is the fact that they are ultimately controlled by the ruling ideology. 2.The RSA function predominantly by means of repression and violence and secondarily by ideology whereas the ISA functions predominantly by ideology and secondarily by repression and violence. The ISA functions in a concealed and a symbolic manner. He declares that the School has supplanted the Church as being the crucial ISA which augments the reproduction of the relations of production (i. e. , the capitalist relations of exploitation) by training the students to become productive forces (labour-power) working for and under the Capitalist agents of exploitation.The Educational ISAs, which assume a dominant role in a Capitalist economy, conceal and mask the ruling class ideology behind its liberating qualities so that their hidden agendas become inconspicuous to the parents of the students. Althusser compares â€Å"ideology† to Freud’s â€Å"unconscious†. In the same sense that Freud had stated that the unconscious was eternal, he hypothesizes that ideology too is eternal due to its omnipresence. Therefore, ideology in general has no history.Althusser posits that it is not possible for a class to hold State power unless and until it exercises its hegemony (domination) over and in the ISA at the same time. The importance of ISAs is unde rstood in the wake of class struggles because ISAs are not only a crucial stake in class struggle but they are also the site of class struggle. The resistances of the exploited classes are able to find means and opportunities to express themselves in the ISAs to overpower the dominant class.An oppressed class can end its oppression by over powering the dominant/ruling class by utilizing the contradictions within the ISAs or by conquering combating positions in the ISAs during struggle. The crux of Althusser’s argument is the structure and functioning of â€Å"ideology†. Althusser explains the structure and functioning of ideology by presenting two theses. Firstly, he posits that ideology represents the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence.This distortion of reality is caused by material alienation and by the active imagination of oppressive individuals who base their domination and exploitation on the falsified representations of the world in order to enslave the relatively passive minds of the oppressed. Secondly, he posits that ideology always has a material existence in the form of concrete entities or apparatuses (ISAs). Hence, an individual’s belief in various ideologies (imaginary realities) is derived from the ideas of the individual who is a subject endowed with a consciousness that is defined by the ISAs.This (false) consciousness inspires and instigates the subject to behave in certain ways, adopt certain attitudes and participate in certain regular practices which conform to the ideology within which he recognizes himself as a subject. The ideas of the subject are inscribed in the ritual practices based on the â€Å"correct† principles of that ideology. Hence, despite the imaginary distortion by ideology, a subject derives his beliefs from the ideas which become his material actions and practices governed by material rituals which are all defined by material ideological apparatus and derived from the same.Althusser’s central thesis states that ideology transforms individuals as subjects by a process of interpellation or hailing. The Family ISA is at work even before a child is born because it predetermines the identity of the child before its birth. Hence, an individual is always-already a subject. An individual is subjected to various levels of ideological subjection and each level of subjection or each ISA that subjects the individual influences the individual’s day to day activities and thereby determines his real conditions of existence.Further, Althusser demonstrates that the recognition of oneself as a ‘free’ subject within an ideology is only a misrecognition because the notion of a ‘free’ subject in ideology is only an illusion. In reality, the subject is subjugated, limited, restricted and controlled by ideology to such an extent that he has limited freedom and diminutive individual agency. Due to this misrecogni tion the subject acts and practices rituals steeped in the dominant ideology that are detrimental to his/her own welfare.

Education of the filipino Essay

?According to the article, it seems that foreigners, especially the Americans influence us in a lot of different ways. They influence us in terms of speech, sense of style and clothing, food we eat, the movies we watch and even how we think and decide. And for that, I can say that our minds are somewhat manipulated by the Western culture and thus, we think and act as if we were like them. Where is the modern day Crisostomo Ibarra and Maria Clara who took their stand for the traditional way of living? Where are the people who care enough to preserve our culture and tradition? I agree with Renato Constantino’s statement in which I would quote â€Å"Education is a vital weapon of people striving for economic emancipation, political independence and cultural renascence. † One must be aware of the country’s problems, understand the solution and be caring and courageous enough to work and sacrifice for our country’s salvation. We Filipinos must work hand in hand to achieve one goal. In my opinion, many Pinoys want the Philippines to be an American state because for them, lying in independence could mean poverty. Hopeless and grim as it may seem. For me, it’s not just the government and the system that has problem here, it’s the people and their manners plus attitude. It is also said that the most effective way of subjugating people is to capture their minds. In doing so, we are tricked into doing or being someone we are unlikely to be and some of our beliefs and stand can be swayed by such illusions of freedom to express. As long as feelings of resistance remain in the hearts of the vanquished, no conqueror is secure and as long as we are strong and sure of ourselves, we can avoid being swayed by others. The Filipinos mentality sometimes just escapes me. Many are bias and many are just plain jealous of the fact that Filipinos can be smart too. A lot can’t still accept that fact. On the other hand, there are several weak beings that move beside the â€Å"authorized† person holding the power against them or what we call â€Å"puppets†. The American culture has been a part of the Filipino’s lives. But despite of that I believe that we must preserve our resources and Filipino values to an extent. The fact still remains that these people are in a conquered nation whose national life had to be woven into the pattern of American dominance. The drawback is that we still rely on first world countries such as the United States for support financially and economically. Absurd as it may sound but the truth remains that we are poor and we need them to survive. A classic example would be us students most especially those taking up Nursing. We are struggling hard to finish this course because of its demands abroad. Many are aiming to seek for better job opportunities abroad. I would be lying if I say that I am taking up Nursing because I want to serve my country, but who doesn’t want a brighter future? Now where’s my sense of nationalism? I say I’m just being practical. It’s much better to accept the fact that we, Filipinos are diverse in culture and language as well as our way of thinking because we have been influenced by so many cultures internally and externally. It is true that education will bring emancipation and the right education will broaden our perspective and hopefully, appreciate and capitalize on the diversity to propel us forward.

Has the Indentureship System Brought Significant Value?

The contemporary Caribbean society is comprised of various forms of culture and ethnic backgrounds. The main influential force behind this cultural diversification is due to slavery and Indentureship. Indentureship is the state or period of being a servant bound to service for a specified time in return for passage to a colony. The Indentureship system lasted from 1838 to 1917. This system consists of a variety of ethnic groups such as east Indians, white labourers and Chinese.Indeed this system of indentureship did brought significant value to the Caribbean civilization. The east Indians brought along the practicing of craft, some venture into retail trade while others went into agriculture. Indian contributions to Jamaican culture are legion. Indian jewellery designs have made their mark especially in the form of intricately wrought thin, gold bangles. Indian contributions to Jamaican culture are legion. Indian jewellery designs have made their mark especially in the form of intric ately wrought thin, gold bangles.Old animosities forgotten, elements of traditional Indian dress can be found in Jonkonnu processions and many African-Jamaicans participate alongside their Indian-Jamaican brothers and sisters in the Indian inspired cultural celebrations of Hosay and Divali. The indentureship system left behind traditional Indian foods for example curry goat, roti and callaloo which most of the Caribbean countries have adopt to their national cuisine.East Indians settled in Caribbean countries such as Trinidad, Guyana, Martinique and more places in which they played a significant role in the development of the economy. These indentured laborers had saved an ailing sugar industry, which was one of the main industries that led to the growth and development of these countries. Indians brought their firm family structure in which all relations supported each other. The idea of extended family, which included several generations, was very strong. All males over 16 years w ere members of a family council.They made all decisions of the family, for example marriage, religious ceremonies and expenditure. Hindus worshipped several gods of which Brahma was the most important. He was the supreme god or creator. They believed that when people died their souls were reborn in a new body. The Hindus had very strict divisions in the society. This was known as the caste system. Each person belonged to a special group or caste. The Brahmins, or the religious leaders, were at the top of the society and the Hindus in the Caribbean continued to follow them as their leaders.

Professional Development Activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Professional Development Activity - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that this year, for the first time, the hairdressing department would like to attempt the use of flexible delivery of the Certificate II in hairdressing to school students who may have the intention of accomplishing their course within a year instead of the usual administrative two years which has been the norm within the previous years. This previous method meant that the students who might have begun the course within their final year of the school may be disadvantaged since they might only be able to finish half of the units hence may only receive an attainment statement to cover the units which were successfully completed. This then would imply that the students would have to resume post-school in order to finish the remaining units before they could be considered qualified. To deliver the qualifications within one calendar year yet still adhering to Board of Studies and school, requirements demand that the course should be partially be delivered within the school holidays. Because of a learning management system’s flexible nature, students would be able to accomplish part of their study off campus. The structure of the program would include four days face to face instruction and a one-day off-campus instruction with self-directed activities. MOODLE has been selected as a learning management system since it may enable teachers to manage, communicate and track student progress while off-site.... Professional activity The professional development activity that I would like to undertake as a participant is a MOODLE course creator workshop. An individual given the role of a course creator may be able to assume a teacher’s role for the courses under review, create courses and have access to hidden courses. He may also have the ability to assign teachers the role of delivering the created courses. The course creator role may be mainly aimed at instructional designers, educational developers and teachers who engage themselves with online teaching (Moore, Michael & Greg, 237-249). At my place of work, may often be narrowed down to a program coordinator, head teacher or a teacher from each faculty selected on their computer competence. Instruction in a MOODLE course creator role may be freely available online through You-Tube video tutorials, e-learning course in MOODLE 2.2 making use of the topic format and then populating each topic with activities and learning resources th at include learning objects from the retail operations toolbox. MOODLE may be considered a management system for learning which may be designed in order to aid instructors in the creation of the online classroom settings having the chances for rich collaboration and interaction. It may comprise of a number of design aspects, which may allow students and instructors to interact freely, experience and collaborate online learning within multiple ways. It may be said to be significant in supplementing underground courses or even hosting complete online courses (George, 53-77). I would like to effectively come up and provide web-based and instructor-led learning in my course. The development of learning processes and

Answer the question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 18

Answer the question - Essay Example The practices should be friendly enough for the students to be interested to adopt and implement them and continue focusing on them rather than the socially unacceptable behaviors. I agree with the teachers that the fourfold interest is good for the children to use to pursue their own interests and gain experience. However it is necessary for them to learn the subjects even if juts the basics if their knowledge is to widen and they are to learn more about the world outside their schools and homes. Subject such as English is important for their communication. Not all children have their first language as English and hence may have difficulties communicating in proper correct English if they are not taught. History is important for the children to grasp the concepts of their country, how it came to be as well as about the other continents. Children not exposed to these subjects are bound to have closed minds which is not good for the global environment in this day and

Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Psychology - Essay Example Similarly, significantly more women than men meet the diagnostic criteria for anxiety disorders (56% vs 35%). On the other hand, men (20%) are twice more prone to substance abuse disorders (eg. alcohol dependence) than women (8%) (WHO, 2007). Also, the incidence of antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy) is three times more in men than women. In cases of severe disorders as schizophrenia, it is obsevered that men have early onset of symptoms but women experience higher frequency of hallucinations or psychotic symptoms. The key reasons behind greater prevalance of such disorders in women are because of greater exposure to poverty, discrimination and socioeconomic disadvantage such as child/sex abuse, traditional gender based violence and overwork. Reasons why more men have antisocial personality disorders as women tend to be more empathic than men. Works Cited WHO. (2007). Gender Disparities in Mental Health. World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance D ependence. Geneva: WHO.

International Business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International Business - Assignment Example Wal-Mart is the leading entity in retail business globally. It commenced operations in mid-1950s in Arkansas. Later, the entity expanded on a national level then on a global level. The entity seeks to offer the lowest prices in the market. Consequently, the entity attracts enormous clientele. The attractive pricing offered by this entity has priced out the other competitors since the clientele seek to maximise their purchasing power. Wal-Mart’s enormous revenues and stringent cost management have allowed the entity to avail their merchandise at reduced prices. The entity has presence in most regions globally. Nonetheless, the entity has not taped into the Middle East market. The entry of Wal-Mart into this market will alter the dynamics of the retail sector. Wal-Mart’s entry into the UAE market will require proper strategizing. Such strategizing is imperative for a venture of this magnitude. Ill-advised ventures primarily culminate in failure and losses. It is crucial t o make decisions pertaining to ventures on credible information to avoid such a scenario. My knowledge on the dynamics of the UAE economy will assist me in advising Wal-Mart management appropriately. Additionally, the location of retail store will have a considerable implication on the revenues of the entity.rt. Consequently, I will provide the management of Wal-Mart with strategic locations that will enable the entity attract enormous clientele. The above details elaborate some of my roles in the matching and networking of Wal-Mart. Objective of joint venture or strategic alliance Joint ventures denote a business founded on an accord between various individuals. The accord elaborates the input of each party in the venture (Gutterman, 2002). The accord elaborates how long the agreement binds the parties. In this scenario, Wal-Mart will require information on the market and store. As a party in the joint venture, I will provide stores located strategically across UAE. A strategic all iance is cooperation that aims at accomplishing specific objectives. An example of a strategic alliance is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) where the parties involved aimed at securing their nations against military adversaries. In the above case, Wal-Mart aims to boost its revenues via expansion into new market. Similarly, I aim at boosting my income by renting my store to a client that will offer better returns (Frank, 2006). Scope of business This joint venture relates to the retail industry. The prospects of the industry are enormous. The UAE population has generally high income. Consequently, the citizenry have substantial income that they can expend. Conclusively, the market in this nation has immense potential that is unexploited. Additionally, UAE’s retail market lacks a dominant entity. As such, the market is distributed equally among the key players in the sector. This signifies that Wal-Mart can enter the market and attain dominance. Wal-Mart can domin ate retailing since it offers lower prices. Reduced pricing is an aspect of the firm that

Development and Diversification of Living Organisms Assignment

Development and Diversification of Living Organisms - Assignment Example The complete set of genes within a living organism’s cell is called genotype. On the other hand, the complete set of physical characteristics that make up the structure of an organism is called phenotype. The limitations of these factors will inhibit the reproduction process, which of course results differ from one species to another because of the differences in characteristics that are inherited and environmental influences. This variation is also the result of a process called mutation, which is caused by radiation, viruses, and errors during DNA replication. Genes that arise by mutation and found at the same place on a chromosome is known as an allele. Thus, it can be said that evolution is the result of two opposing forces. According to Hardy-Weinberg’s Theory, the genotype and allele frequencies of a population will often remain in equilibrium, unless disturbing influences, such as mutation, is present. The equilibrium state is only possible when the genotype and allele frequencies do not change. This happens when a population has a large size, which prevents the occurrence of genetic drift, bottlenecks and founder effects. The equilibrium state also occurs when there is no mutation, as explained earlier and that random mating takes place, which is explained below. However, this is hardly the case. In other words, if the equilibrium state is violated by factors such as those mentioned above, then evolution will take place. The genotype and allele frequencies are influenced by environmental and cultural events. A given genotype frequency can occur with random mating in a single generation as this causes the evolution of a given species, which in turn produces a new equilibrium within that one generation. For instance, continuous random mating of a black-haired population will result in homozygotes. Such violations include inbreeding, assortative mating, and small population size. On the other hand, a change in allele frequency can occur when selection, mutation, and migration happen.

Analysis of the attractiveness of the UK venture capital industry Essay

Analysis of the attractiveness of the UK venture capital industry - Essay Example Private Equity and Venture Capital Report on Investment Activity 2008’ in its survey has determined that worldwide the investment has seen a steady rate of growth with a few undulations in the last three decades (Coups, 2009). There was a steady spurt in investment from year 2003 onwards until it peaked at 31,634 Â £m in 2007. In 2008 it fell by 11,609 Â £m probably due to the effects of worldwide recession but still maintained a healthy figure (Fig.1). In the UK, the investment figure was 10,227 Â £m in 2006, rose to 11, 972 Â £m in 2007 but fell sharply to 8556 Â £m in 2008 (Coups, 2009). All asset classes have now suffered due to the impact of worldwide recession and Private Equity is no exception. However such funds which were raised during previous such downtrends in the years 1991-94 and 2001-03 did produce outstanding results for the investors (BVCA, 2009). Over long term, UK private equity has outperformed other asset classes in a comprehensive manner. The annual IRR in 2008 for all funds was -9.8% which compares favourably with public equity market performance (BVCA, 2009). In fact over a span of the last ten years private equity returns per annum were approximately ten times higher than that of the FTSE All-Share Index and four times more than the pension average (BVCA, 2009). When considered region wise, investment in the years 2007 and 2008 has been steady enough throughout the United Kingdom, but there was a major fall in the financial capital of the country, London where it fell from 5730 Â £m in 2007 to 3590 Â £m. Almost similar decline was observed in the South East, East Midlands and the North West. In the East of England, Yorks and Humb and West Midlands investment figures did not change much in these two years. Surprisingly, investment rose remarkably to 1052 Â £m in 2008 from 393 Â £m in 2007 in Scotland (Coups, 2009). The major investment was in UK Technology Companies where 596 Â £m was invested in 2008 as compared to 835 Â £m in 2007. Particularly

The Amazon. com company Essay Example for Free

The Amazon. com company Essay The Amazon. com company was founded by Bezos Jeff in the year 1994 and the year 1995 marked the launching date for the company.   According to Miller (2005) the company deals with the sale of products through the Internet.   The electronic American commerce business has attracted a lot of business the world over. The company has a bookstore business which is on line, it also has come up with various lines of products such as MP3 formats, VHS, CDS, electronics, video games, furnitures, apparel, computer software, toys, and food.    The United kingdom, Canada, Japan China and France are places within which the Amazon. com has established its websites (Trevino, 2005).   The company also offers shipping services globally to places where the companys products are distributed. The Amazon. com as one of the leading companies in the electronic commerce business has faced various challenges which pressurizes its operations.   One of the pressure the company gets is the need to be effective in the data management of the customers who conduct transactions with the company. Montes (2006) posited that business operation on the net is not easy to manage.   The company is always challenged by the issue of tracking down the various channels through which business operates and to come up with a good collection of data in order to know how the sales of the company are progressing. Where the collection of data is not well managed, it would be hard to know what is exactly taking place in the business.   Many companies running the e commerce have been unable to track down their data effectively and ended up operating the business blindly. The amazon company has had challenges resulting from the need to ensure that SEO-finding of the company is effective and also ensure that traffic over the world of Internet is sufficient (Lefebvire, 2006).   The company has to fight with the many competitors who have emerged in the e commerce business. For every business to succeed in the e commerce, it is important to ensure that while customers are shopping for goods over the Internet they can be in a position to see the website of the company on the front page.   If a company is not in a position to appear on the top while the others do, chances are that very few customers will get information about the companys products and this leads to less sales (Strander, 2002). The company managers are always on their toes trying to fight new ways of expanding and diversifying the companys product.   With the increase in the the number of companies which are taking part in the e-commerce, it is very dangerous for any company to reach the comfort zone.   Dakota (2004) posited that the new companies in the market have tried to come up with substitute products which are offered by the amazon. These competitors are aggressive and always fighting to win a great traffic on the net by using various links and proving to be the most attractive home pages on the net.   The amazon company has the pressure of ensuring that it utilizes the modern technology and ensures that it secures the best position in the Internet world.   Application of strategic planning is also an important aspect.   The company is always in need of attaining the best strategies to maintain as a leading company in the Internet. The need to secure the best system intergeneration for the company is of utmost importance for the success of the business.   The Amazon. com has the pressure to ensure that its softwares are effective and that it is in a position to secure disparate systems which include inventory management, quick books, payment processing and order processing. These equipments are of utmost importance to ensure that the communication system within the company is effective.   Failure to afford these items the communication system in the company gets to break down. According to Vessel (2006) the result is that the tracking of the channels through which the business operations of the company are taking place becomes hard. A business needs these systems if it wants to be in a position to measure its performance in the past, the present and future performance.   With this facilities the company is able to compare its performance with the competitors and know what business strategies it needs to use in order to keep leading in the e commerce business. Quinn (2001) posited that the other challenges faced by the Amazon. com is the need to ensure that the product sourcing methods and procedures are effective, margin shrinking and rising fees are also important issues.   This issues mainly occur in the auction scenarios but it is important for every business to ensure that any challenges that have great effect on the activities which helps to improve the function of the business are tackled first. Failure of putting measures to control the challenges facing a business leads to the going down of the organization and the weakness in management skills.   A company needs to first ensure that its operations are effective before it moves to the next step of considering expansion issue.   Without an efficient operation and management, a company may not be in a position to realize any profits. The Amazon. com is also pressurized by the need of change and adjustment to the ever changing infrastructures and the emergence of new products in the market.   According to Winston (2003) there have been new industries coming up in the market with new products and infrastructure and the challenge is overcoming the obstacles which may prevent a company from adjusting to the changes.   Virtual or digital products are a good example of the products which have emerged into the market and customers are in a position to access them by downloading the products from any destination.   The soundtrack as one of the products gives the customers the power to decide whether they want to retain the product in virtual form or whether they would like to   be accessed in the physical form. The challenge which is associated with this products is   looking for the category where this products may placed considering the industry category which traditionally used to host the products and the new digital dimension in which the products take (Short, 2004). The issue of application of intellectual rights on property is also difficult and the company get problems while choosing which customary laws to apply. The emergence of new industries in this sector is very hard to predict.   This prediction is important as it is used by a company to determine the future expectation of market share and to plan for the strategies which need to be applied in case of many competitors coming in the market.   The multimedia coming into the market was one of the threatening competitors Amazon experienced and the way forward for this sector is still not well defined.   This means that the company is faced by unpredictable occurrences.

Authenticity of Installation Art

Authenticity of Installation Art Artistic value is achieved only when an artwork expresses the authentic values of its maker, especially when those values are shared by the artists immediate community (Tolstoy). In early December 2010 I went to an exhibition of French artist Louise Bourgeois in Hauser Wirth gallery in London. What fascinated me immensely in that exhibition was the way in which the installation was set up. I knew for a fact that Louise Bourgeois passed away earlier in the year. I wondered, regarding the installations in particular, how it had been possible for the curator and gallery staff to recreate the pieces in such a way that would speak truthfully to the original intention of the artist. It is not an easy task for a curator to bring out in a show authenticity to the audience, however regarding installation art without the artists physical presence or mediation, I had to ask myself the question how much can a curator intervene without the art work losing its authenticity? Since the very nature of installation demands dismounting and recreating, does the art work become a duplicate or a replica of the artists work, or does it become the curators art? Is the work still authentic when copied from its original site into the exhibition space of a museum? Inevitably, Installation art, being so different in appearance and relation to its audience than traditional art, has to challenge old concepts of conservation and authenticity. In this essay, I will investigate whether installation art, without the artists presence or intervention, is authentic according to the definition of authenticity. Furthermore, this will address whether the notion of authenticity needs to be rethought in order to fit in with more recent methods in contemporary art, such as installation. A curator encompasses many areas being the interphase between artists, institutions and the public. Whereas, an artist works hard to express and experiment with feelings, emotions and viewpoints through various medium that can influence and enlighten people. Together, both need to work in close proximity when coordinating an art project, event or an exhibition to remain as authentic and truthful as possible to the work of the artist. The task of the curator is challenging being the intermediate between the artist and the viewer, therefore it is important that the exhibition brings out the artists originality, intention and authenticity to the viewer. how much can he/she intervene without the art works losing its authenticity? The problem of defining authenticity in the arts has been a controversial topic amongst art critics and experts for decades, especially regarding representation and preservation in art works. The task of a curator can be challenging being the interphase between artists, institutions and the public. He needs to work in close proximity to the artist who works hard to express and experiment with feelings, emotions and viewpoints through various medium that can influence and enlighten people. When coordinating an exhibition it is important that the curator ensures that the exhibition brings out the artists originality, innovation and intention just as the artist perceives it.- how much can he/she intervene without the art works losing its authenticity? The problem of defining authenticity in the arts has been a controversial topic amongst art critics and experts for decades, especially regarding representation and preservation in art works. In early December 2010 I went to an exhibition of French artist Louise Bourgeois in Hauser Wirth gallery in London. What fascinated me immensely in that exhibition was the way in which the installation was set up. I knew for a fact that Louise Bourgeois passed away earlier in the year. I wondered, regarding the installations in particular, how it had been possible for the curator and gallery staff to recreate the pieces in such a way that would speak truthfully to the original intention of the artist. It is not an easy task for a curator to bring out in a show authenticity to the audience, however regarding installation art without the artists physical presence or mediation, I had to ask myself the question how much can a curator intervene without the art work losing its authenticity? Since the very nature of installation demands dismounting and recreating, does the art work become a duplicate or a replica of the artists work, or does it become the curators art? Is the work still au thentic when copied from its original site into the exhibition space of a museum? Inevitably, Installation art, being so different in appearance and relation to its audience than traditional art, has to challenge old concepts of conservation and authenticity. In this essay, I will investigate whether installation art, without the artists presence or intervention, is authentic according to the definition of authenticity. Furthermore, this might stress whether the old notion of authenticity needs to be rethought in order to fit in with more recent methods in contemporary art, such as installation. If one takes the meaning behind authenticity seriously the need to be genuine, original, truthful..etc. is it then possible in an installation to be authentic if it is not the artist himself who has constructed the art work? Is a part of an installation art work not the experience of constructing it itself? In order to become authentic, is it the right for an artist to make the installation? Surely the artist has his own right to do so and mind you, some artists even prefer that, but what if it is physically impossible due to the scale of the installation object? And What if the artist no longer exists, such as in the case of Louise Bourgeois. Is it then better not to reconstruct her art installations? Perhaps the notion of authenticity does not apply to installation art, as long as the intention behind the artist work is intact, who cares? Is authenticity in the art dead? Installation Art A Change in representing art What characterizes it? How is it different to the tradiational art form? By the 1960s the art world flourished with Minimalism, Dada, Happenings and Installation art. Much different to traditional art, installation art brought about new complications when dealing with conservation and presentation for museums, galleries and private patrons. The traditional relation between the viewer and the object had shifted where space, time and location became more inherent in the art work (Bishop, 2005, p. 10). Despite the difficulties in exhibiting installation art, it proved to be popular in the succeeding eras and flourished in galleries and museums around the world. However, methods of conservation and presentation are a different story when it comes to installation art. A quite coherent and clearly represented overview of different models and kinds of installation is given by Claire Bishop in her book Installation Art A Critical History, written in 2005. Her book is divided in four chapters, each presenting a different model of installation. The term installation in conjunction with art and art exhibitions is not new. However, the term was originally used in a slightly different manner. It referred to the exhibition space rather than being an independent art movement, as also indicated by Michael Archer in Installation Art written in 1996, the term installation was traditionally referred to as the process of hanging the exhibited works: In the early 1960 the terms assemblage and environment were most commonly employed to describe work in which the artist had brought together a host of materials in order to fill a given space. At that time, installation referred to nothing more than how an exhibition had been hung (Archer Petry Oliveira Oxley, 1996, p.11). A similar point is made by Julie H. Reiss in her book From Margin to Center The Spaces of Installation Art, written in 2001. She suggests that the term Installation art is post-enforced on room engulfing installations. She indicates that the term Installation art for room-size multimedia works developed from Allan Kaprows Environments that was used for these kinds of works in the 1950s. Later, it became synonymous for exhibition, therefore still referring to the exhibition space rather than a form of art. Only later the meaning of Installation for an independent art movement developed, however hard to pin down: Although the term Installation art has become widely used, it is relatively nonspecific. It refers to a wide range of artistic practices, and at times overlaps with other interrelated areas including Fluxus, Earth art, Minimalism, video art, Performance art, Conceptual art and Process art, Site specificity, institutional critique, temporality, and ephemerality are issues shared by many practitioners of these genres (Reiss, 1999, p. xiii) According to Bishop, the term installation for an art form that explored the space it is positioned in, came from the photographic documentation of an exhibition; usually referred to as exhibition shot. Therefore, the installation of art and Installation art, both, deal with the position of an art object in regard to its space and audience. However, the difference between the old term and the new art is the relation of space and work. Whereas the installation of art is secondary to the piece itself, Installation art and its site become a symbiosis, in other words they become an inseparable unity. (Bishop, 2005). Also because of this blurring in terminology and the wide span of different art objects, a correct definition of Installation art is somewhat hard to provide. Nevertheless, the next paragraphs will give deeper insights into the features and core characteristics of Installation art. The first kind of Installations art as described by Claire Bishop (2005) is the total installation. Here, the viewer is able to physically enter the artwork. Instead of using paint on canvas in order to create an illusion of three dimensional spaces, the viewer is, one could almost say, able to step into the painting, experiencing it from the inside: Installation art therefore differs from traditional media (sculpture, painting, photography, video) in that it addresses the viewer directly as a liberal presence in the space. Rather than imagining the viewer as a pair of disembodied eyes that survey the work from a distance, installation art presupposes an embodied viewer whose sense of touch, smell and sound are heightened their sense of vision (Bishop, 2005, p. 6). As indicated in the quote above, one of the most profound innovations of Installation art was a new relation between object viewer and space. This new perception of artworks are connected to Freuds psychoanalytical method of interpreting dreams; the free association method. According to Freud, the interpretation, the making sense of our dreams, so to speak, consists of three steps: the visual images and sometimes auditory fragments (the dream itself), the analysis by free association and the expression in words or syllables. Citing the Russian artist Ilya Kabakov, Bishop suggests: These three features the sensory immediacy of conscious perception, a composite structure, and the elucidation of meaning through free-association precisely correspond to a model of viewing experience found in the total installation as described by Kabakov. We imaginatively project ourselves into an immersive scene that requires creative free association in order to articulate its meaning; in order to do this, the installations assemblage elements are taken one by one and read symbolically as metonymic part of a narrative (Bishop, 2005, p. 16). The work of art becomes a kaleidoscope, consisting of many paintings. By absorbing the viewer into the artwork it challenged the old fixed and traditional perspective of the viewer, suggesting that multiple perspectives are possible. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] various forms of institutional critique and conceptual art developed a different model of site-specificity that implicitly challenged the innocence of space and the accompanying presumption of a universal viewing subject[à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] (Kwon, 2002, p.13). Also, this first theatrical form of installation art posed severe problems and difficulties to the traditional treatment of art and seemed somewhat hostile towards popular cultural institutions. The size that expanded common exhibition space and use of seemingly useless components suggested a critical position towards the assumption that all objects in a museum have to be considered art. (Bishop 2005, p. 33-34). Another form of Installation art was inspired and resolved from the movement of Minimalism in the 1960s; even though minimalist sculptures were different in their relation to the exhibition space itself: [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] the fact that the exhibition comprised several sculptures did not mean that it was an environment, because there are seven separate pieces (Judd in Bishop, 2005, p. 55). However, it took over core characteristics of this movement, by stressing the awareness of the relationship between artwork and the space in which it is exhibited as much as the viewers perception of it. The piece of work and the perceiving individual became inseparable. Although similar in their appearance, installations, different than minimalistic works, attempt to focus on the relationship between light and space; taking the space they are exhibited in into consideration: Like Minimalist sculpture, Ashers installation focused attention on the viewer, and on how he received and perceive any given space. Unlike Minimalism, it also showed how the white gallery space was not a timeless constant but subject to contingent flux: the installation was accessible day and night, so that the exterior light, sound and air became a permanent part of the exhibition (Bishop, 2005, p. 60). By focusing on flux and other constantly changing factors; daylight for example, the artists suggest that the perception of an object depends and is determined by the position and the period of time the perceiver observes the object; indicating our partial perception and questioning the objectivity of our perception of reality. This visitors heightened awareness of the work within its exhibition space and awareness that perception is bound to many different factors was taken to another level by involving the viewer directly with the artwork by recording or monitoring them. In the installations of Dan Graham (b.1942) made in the 1970s, mirrors and video feedback are used to stage perceptual experiments for the viewer that demonstrated how our awareness of the world is dependent on interaction with others. Grahams work is therefore a crucial consideration for this type of installation art, since the status of the viewer preoccupies his thinking throughout his decade (Bischop, 2005, p.72) This new awareness of perception also plays a crucial part in the next category of Installation art. However, it deals with this perception in a different, if not oppositional manner. With the help of different devices, engulfing darkness or colours, mirrors, sounds or assimilating environment artists tried to dislodge or annihilate the perception of the viewer. Even though done in a different oppositional way (dislodging instead of heightening the viewers perception), the visitor is forced to reflect on once position within society and history. The installations [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] do not seek to increase perceptual awareness of the body but rather to reduce it, by assimilating the viewer in various ways to the surrounding space[à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] (Bishop, 2005, p. 101). The last of Bishops categories of different installation addresses and activates the viewer in a totally different and new manner. This last form of installation activates the spectator in opposition to most other installation because he actively participates. This form could be described as a Happening, an installation where artist and visitors act together upon a specific situation. The audience of this work is therefore envisaged as plural: rather than a one-to-one relationship between work of art and viewer, relational art sets up situation in which viewer are addressed as a collective, social mass; moreover, in many of these works we are given the structure to create a community, however temporary and utopian this might be (Bishop, 2005, 116). One of the most precursor and representative for these action or life installations are, so Bishop, the German artist Joseph Beuys and the artist Rirkrit Tiravanija born in South America to Thai parents. Beuys works were quite political constituting a mixture of installation and performance. On group exhibitions or art fairs, such as the Documenta in Kassel, he put forward political campaigns in the form of art (The Bureau for Direct Democracy, 1972), where everybody could discuss about issues, such as democracy. Tiravanija, as another example for this category of installations organized collective cooking session in a museum or gallery; conveying a communion between individuals. In his installation Untitled (tomorrow is another day) from 1996 he rebuilt his apartment at the Kà ¶lnischer Kunstverein in Cologne so visitors could cook in his kitchen or socialize in his livening room. (Bishop, 2005, p. 102-199). Though, it is hard to give a full overview of Installation art because to many different works can be included into the notion of Installation art, the short overview above intends to give a rough outline of the major categories of installation art. As it became apparent from the examples already, the new appearance of Installation art gave rise to a couple of difficulties, especially concerning conservation and reinstallation of the works. In contrary to traditional forms of art, Installation art changed the perception and position or point of view of the viewer. Because of their disarming character the works disperse or decentre the traditional or fixed point of view by either heightening or dissolute the viewers perception. Most importantly, however for the further chapters if this paper is the caducity or time and place specificity seemingly inherent to this new form of art. They all rely on the literal presence of the viewer in that particular moment of being and demanding the v iewers first hand experience. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the art work] articulate and define itself through properties, qualities or meaning produced in specific relationships between and object or event and a position it occupies (Kaye, 2000, p.1). All of them seem to be linked to their time and place that makes a reconstruction at another place (another museum or gallery for example) impossible without loosing its original meaning. This or a similar point is also made by Miwon Kwon in her book One Place after Another Site-specific Art and Locational Identity, written in 2004 as much as in her article One Place After Another: Notes on Site-Specificity published by Erika Suderburg ( 2000) in Space, Site Intervention, Situating Installation Art. In her writings on installations, she stresses the importance and influence of the site and location the work was intended for by the artist. Because of this site-specificity the first-hand experience of the viewer remains, also for her, a crucial point in the acquaintance of Installation Art: The (neo-avant-garde) aspiration to exceed the limitations of traditional media, like paintings and sculpture, as well as their institutional setting; the epistemological challenge to relocate meaning from within the art object to the contingencies of its context; the radical restructuring of the subject from an old Cartesian model to a phenomological one of lived bodily experience [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] all these imperatives came together in arts new attachments to the actuality of site (Suderburg, 2000, p. 39) Therefore, Installation art, being another step within the development or the search of art for its limits, led to a type of art that took its environment into consideration, to an extend that the actual presence of the viewer was of crucial importance. Moreover, Kwon suggests that the new kind of art inherent another characteristic that gave rise to difficulties for cultural institutions, such as museums. Maybe influenced by Conceptual art, as well the artists of installations increasingly blurred the borderline between art and non-art. This came to the fore when the installations were accompanied by debates and discussions (like the works of Joseph Beuys and Rirkrit Tiravanija presented above). This way, the first-hand experience became even more crucial because the bases of art became increasingly fluid and virtual. (Suderburg, 2004, Ch.2). Since some of the works could not be moved from its original site, either because they were too big or they emerged with the site (like wall paintings, for example, Richard Serra Splashing, installation at Catelli Warehouse, 1968), reproduction became a common means to transfer the art objects into institutionalized exhibition space. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] the re-creations come to coexist with or replace the old, functioning as new originals (some even finding homes in permanent collections of museums) (Kwon, 2004, p. 48). Clearly, there are a multitude of problems concerning Installation art. Most of the works seem as if they could not be preserved for future generations at all. Should these objects that are so much bound to a time and place art all be exhibited? How can one possibly exhibit an action that took place at a certain time and place performed by a certain group of people? Without doubt there are and have been exhibitions of artist such as Joseph Beuys in museums all around th e world? How can his works be preserved or re-experienced in a totally different place by totally different people? However, the next chapters of this paper will focus on the problems of authenticity and authorship regarding the conservation and re-building of installations. If an installations has to be re-installed or material has to be protected from decline conservators, curators and sometimes even the artist are confronted with the question in how far they are allowed to engage into the original artwork without loosing its meaning or originality. Much of the materials used are subject to enormous change and mortality, such as media technology, natural products or other time bound devices. What kind of problems of authenticity evolve and how are these problems solved and recognized in every-day practice?

Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ethics

Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ethics Abstract The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was a forty year-long study in which researchers observed the natural progression of syphilis in 399 African-American men. Despite medical advancements and the discovery of successful penicillin treatments for syphilis, researchers involved in the Tukegee Syphilis Study took extreme measures to ensure participants remained unaware of life-saving intervention (Jones, 1993). The deceptive and manipulative nature of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study resulted in public uproar and legislative action to ensure the protection of human rights and prevented future unethical practices in research involving human subjects. Although there are strict federal regulations for research ethics, underrepresentation of minority groups in clinical research continues to exist even forty years after the cessation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Research suggests that the maltreatment and unethical practices of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study may have fostered distrust in health care prov iders resulting in unwillingness to participant in clinical research (Shavers, Lynch, Burmeister 2000). The implications of the Tuskegee Syphilis have helped shape the American Psychological Associations Ethical Code of Conduct (2002) and influenced the current standard of care expected of health care providers involved in research. Keywords: Tuskegee Syphilis Study, research ethics Research Ethics: The Tuskegee Syphilis Study The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is one of the most infamous and controversial studies executed in the last century. In 1932, the United States Public Health Service in conjunction with the Tuskegee Institute initiated a 40 year-long study to observe racial differences in the development of syphilis. Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease that gradual spreads throughout the body and may cause physical deformities, dementia, paralysis, and even death (Center for Disease Control [CDC], 2012). Researchers from the Tuskegee Institute recruited 600 African-American men from Macon County, Alabama, 399 of who had untreated syphilis in the latency stage (Reverby, 2001). The researchers coerced participants into the study by telling them they had â€Å"bad blood†, a term used to describe multiple illnesses within the black community at that time. To persuade participants even further, researchers provided them with regular meals, free transportation to and from the clinic, and funeral s tipends for their families (Carmack, Bates, Harter, 2008). Furthermore, research directors hired African-American doctors and nurses in order to acquire and maintain the participants trust throughout the study (Corbie-Smith, 1999). Despite medical advancements and the 1943 discovery of penicillin as a successful treatment for syphilis, participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study were not privy to life-saving interventions. Furthermore, researchers prevented participants from knowing about viable treatment options by prohibiting medical screenings during the World War II draft, monitoring participants who went to other medical facilities, and intervening with other health care providers who tried to treat participants (Reverby, 2001; Rothman, 1982). By taking such extreme measures throughout the study, more than 100 men who suffered from syphilis succumbed to the curable disease (Corbie-Smith, 1999). Although several government agencies and healthcare providers knew of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, in 1972, the New York Times released an extensive article detailing the unethical treatment of African American men with untreated syphilis. The article generated public disgust and caused nationwide uproar, inevitably resulting in the 1973 termination of the Tuskegee Institute’s syphilis research by the Health and Scientific Affairs Review Board (Carmack, Bates, Harter, 2008). The unethical practices committed by researchers at the Tuskegee Institute led to the 1974 National Research Act, which mandated the use of Institutional Review Boards for research that receives federal grants (Rencher Wolf, 2013). Despite the cessation of the study in 1973, it was not until May 16, 1997 that President Clinton issued an apology on behalf of the United States Government to the victims of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. At this time, the United States Government recognized their role in the c ontinuation of the study and the ethical negligence that took place (Fairchild Bayer, 1999). Throughout the duration of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, generations of researchers who undertook the study continued to rationalize their work based on scientific grounds and the importance of understanding the biological progression of the disease. They justified any ethical concerns by suggesting that researchers could never replicate the magnitude of such data or have the ability to acquire such a large group of untreated individuals (Rothman, 1982). The validations given by researchers to continue mistreating patients stress the importance of creating ethical boundaries when conducting research. Acknowledging the deficient treatment and research decisions made by health care providers in the past helps influence the direction of patient care for the future. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, along with many other unethical research practices in our country’s medical and psychological history, including eugenics and maltreatment of the mentally ill in asylums, have helped shape the ethical requirements that are now expected from all health care providers. The ethical violations committed throughout the course of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study have influenced the inclusion of many standards outlined in the APA Code of Ethics involving patient care, therapeutic practice, and research protocols. Ethical Concerns General Principles The unethical foundation and practices carried out throughout the duration of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study violated the General Principles outlined in the 2002 American Psychological Association Ethical Code of Conduct including: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, Fidelity and Responsibility, Integrity, Justice, and Respect for Human Rights and Dignity. In terms of Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, which describes the importance of avoiding and minimizing patient harm (APA, 2002), the researchers involved with the continuation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study harmed their participants as well as the participants’ families who had to care for them as their health deteriorated due to the progression of the disease. Furthermore, researchers neglected to discuss the transmission of syphilis and preemptive measures that would prevent others from contracting the disease, which caused harm to those who had sexual relationships and children with untreated participants (Corbie-Smith, 1999; Jon es, 1993). The principle of Fidelity and Responsibility focuses on building and maintaining a trusting relationship between the patient and health care provider as well as the obligation to serve in accordance to the patient’s best interest (APA, 2002). The Tuskegee Syphilis Study violated this principle and in many ways relied on deception to give the impression of trusting relationships between researchers and participants. For instance, in order to gain the trust of the participants, researchers hired an African-American nurse named Eunice Rivers for the duration of the forty year-long study. She would often transport them to and from the clinic, act as a cultural liaison, and provide devoted support to the participants (Corbie-Smith, 1999). Although this encouragement and assistance was important for the participants throughout the study, the formation and maintenance of such a trusting relationship may have inhibited the participants from making well-informed decisions about their c ontinued involvement in the study. In this regard, Eunice Rivers may have unintentionally acted as a mode of deception rather than of trust by not upholding the participants’ best interest and inadvertently obstructing informed consent. The Integrity and Justice Principles involve the importance of upholding honesty, avoiding misrepresentation, and ensuring access and benefit from services (APA, 2002). In regards to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, the violations of these values are apparent due to the dishonest, manipulative, and immoral nature of the study. Researchers went to great lengths in order to prevent participants from learning about life-saving treatments for syphilis including informing the Alabama Health Department not to treat participants, interceding with other health care providers, and prohibiting medical screenings for participants drafted to fight in World War II (Reverby, 2001). The resources that researchers used to maintain the study’s objective indicates the unethical practices that occurred throughout the duration of the study in the name of science. Lastly, the principle of Respect for Human Rights and Dignity concerns the protection of human rights and overall welfare of a patient’s well-being (APA, 2002). Throughout the course of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, researchers violated several human rights and exploited the vulnerability of a community affected by a potentially fatal disease. Researchers took advantage of a population that lacked affluence and quality education for American-Americans by giving participants incentives such as funeral stipends and hot meals, which inevitably impeded their ability to make informed decisions about participating in the study (Carmack, Bates, Harter, 2008; Corbie-Smith, 1999). Furthermore, during the period in which the Tuskegee Syphilis Study took place, social prejudices against African-Americans may have influenced the basis and continued justification of the study (Bhopal, 1997). Informed Consent The standards outlined in the American Psychological Association are expectations pertinent to all health care providers who are assessing, treating, or researching patients. The standard related to informed consent regarding research discusses the importance of disclosing the purpose, potential risks, and expected duration of the study in order for participants to make educated decisions about their participation in research (APA, 2002). From a historical perspective, at the time of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study the APA Code of Conduct was not a comprehensive list of standards, research guidelines, and protocols. However, the importance of informed consent is paramount in Tuskegee Syphilis Study and influences the expectations for patient care that are applicable today. The African-American subjects involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study were primarily impoverished and uneducated sharecroppers, which presents ethical concerns regarding the ability for participants to make informed decisions due to desirable research incentives or an inability to comprehend the extent of their involvement in the study. Researchers also used the term â€Å"bad blood† to recruit participants rather than informing them of their actual medical condition. The lack of information provided to the participants regarding the nature of the study and treatment options indicates the inadequacy of informed consent that caused harm to many individuals involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. In addition, there remains to be controversy regarding how informed the participants were throughout the study. In 1972, a Center of Disease Control officer reported that participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study had knowledge of the study’s nature and knew they could withdraw at any time. Conversely, Dr. Williams, an intern who worked at the Tuskegee Institute during the study, stated neither interns nor participants knew of the study’s objectives (Jones, 1993). The conflicting accounts indicate the deceptive characteristics of the study, which may have caused confusion to the participants and subsequent mistrust of health care providers that is still prevalent today. Deception in Research The APA Ethical Code of Conduct prohibits researchers from deceiving participants in research that may potentially â€Å"cause physical harm or severe emotional distress† (p. 11). The detrimental effects caused by the Tuskegee Institute violated this standard in several ways. For instance, researchers told participants they had â€Å"bad blood† and offered treatment and incentives for ongoing participation. Medical staff involved in the study never told participants their true medical diagnosis. Charles Pollard, a Tuskegee subject stated, â€Å"All I knew was that they just kept saying I had bad blood- they never mentioned syphilis to me, not even once† (Jones, 1993, p. 278). The participants used in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study all had syphilis in the latency stage, which can be very dangerous if left untreated. Many with latent stage syphilis may not experience the external symptoms of syphilis including sores and rashes; however, they may be susceptible to develop paralysis, blindness, dementia, or fatal damage to internal organs (CDC, 2012). Despite the debilitating and life-threatening effects of syphilis, participants never received counseling on how to prevent the transmission of disease or that their disease was contagious at all. Consequently, this exacerbated the spread syphilis and contributed to 40 wives contracting syphilis from sexual interactions and 19 children born with congenital syphilis (Jones, 1993; Perkiss, 2013). Although the Tuskegee participants believed they were receiving treatment for â€Å"bad blood†, researchers actually prevented participants from gaining access to life-saving treatment and watched as participants health slowly deteriorated. Researchers continued to justify this active neglect in fear of losing â€Å"valuable† research data due to the longevity of the study. The harm caused by the omission of information in the Tuskegee Study, especially the severity and cause of syphilis is irrevocable and continues to have ethical implications in research studies. Research Implications The unethical practices of researchers and health care providers throughout the Tuskegee Syphilis Study have led to legislative, political, and social implications that continue to affect research protocols. Due to the public upset caused by the revelation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, legislators passed the National Research Act in 1974 in hopes of avoiding unethical practices in future research endeavors (Rencher Wolf, 2013). The National Research Act led to the formation of theNational Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research who were responsible for recognizing and enforcing the ethical standards regarding professional conduct when using human subjects in research. By doing so, the Commission also established guidelines for researchers to abide by in order to protect human rights and preserve human dignity (The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). The National Research Act also mandated institutions who receive government grants to establish and submit research proposals to local Institutional Review Boards. The Institutional Review Boards are required to evaluate research studies and ensure that informed consent, research methods, and objectives adhere to the ethical guidelines and uphold human rights. Moreover, the Institutional Review Boards are responsible for yearly evaluations to ensure r esearchers remain in accordance to all ethical guidelines. (Rencher Wolf, 2013; Corbie-Smith, 1999). Due to the legal and ethical implications of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, many research institutions became overly cautious about including certain groups in their research in fear of causing another public protest. Excluding particular groups from research limited generalizability and the application of research findings to a diverse population, which consequently hindered scientific progression. This concern led to the 1993 National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act, which required researchers to include minorities and women as research subjects. However, the ability to acquire these populations for clinical research, especially ethnic minorities, continues to be troublesome (Corbie-Smith, Thomas, Williams, Moody-Ayers, 1999). Although federal regulations have mandated ethical guidelines for research, the effects of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and other unprincipled practices throughout history may be a factor in the underrepresentation of minorities participating in research and the perpetual mistrust in health care providers (Freimuth et al., 2001). Based on a report from the Center of Disease Control, African-Americans have higher rates of medical conditions including heart disease, stroke, HIV/AIDS, diabetes, and hypertension (CDC, 2011). However, due to the low census of participants in medical research, health care providers face challenges when trying to identify the physiological, cultural, and sociological reasons contributing to the high prevalence of African-Americans suffering from medical conditions. Researchers suggest that the extensive history of unethical treatment by health care professionals, including that of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study may affect the low frequency of minorities willing to participate in research (Freimuth et al., 2001). For instance, a study conducted by Shavers, Lynch, Burmeister (2000) indicates that knowledge of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study would negatively affect African-American participation in biomedical research based on distrust of researchers. Although awareness of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study was not the only factor influencing minority participation, 51% of African-Americans were less trusting of medical research because of their knowledge of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Furthermore, of the 51% who distrusted researchers, 46% reported that knowledge of the Tuskegee Study would affect their participation in medical research and 49% reported being unwilling to participant in research studies. Misconceptions regarding the nature of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study which suggests that researchers intentionally injected participants with syphilis in order to observe the natural progression of the disease may also be a contributing factor as to why minorities are hesitant to trust researchers or health care providers (Freimuth et al., 2001; Shavers, Lynch, Burmeister 2000). Furthermore, parental influence and socialization may have also had an indirect influence on more recent generations who were unaware of the discreditable history of research methods for scientific advancement (Poythress, Epstein, Stiles, Edens, 2011). The influence of cultural perspectives regarding research may reinforce reluctance to participate in research and perpetuate mistrust in health care providers. Conclusion The ethical research concerns surrounding the Tuskegee Syphilis Study continues to influence the revisions of the APA code of conduct, the standard of care expected for all patients, legislative orders to protect human rights, and social perspectives of health care providers. Despite the cessation of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study in 1973 and the enforcement of strict federal regulations, the underrepresentation of minorities in research continues to be a concern. The lack of participation limits generalizability and impedes the validity and application of research findings. In order to facilitate change, it is important for researchers and health care providers to address the misconceptions of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, recognize the development of ethical standards throughout recent decades, and emphasize the value of accurate representation of minorities in research.

Pidgin: Dialect Of English Spoken On The Hawaiian Islands :: essays research papers

Pidgin: Dialect of English Spoken on the Hawaiian Islands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pidgin is a dialect of English spoken in the Hawaiian Islands. It consists of the shortening of many words commonly used in everyday English speech. Some examples include, da (the), odda (other), Tre (meaning tree and three), bra (anyone you know), da kine (anything you don't know), cus (any friend), and many others. Pidgin has it's social barriers as well. It is primarily spoken in the lower class neighborhoods consisting of the Hawaiians and the Filipinos. The dialect has been associated with the members of these neighborhoods and their problems, such as, alcoholism, illiteracy, and a poor standard of living. I come from a diverse family background, my mother is Scottish, English, Italian, French, and much more. My father is part Hawaiian and part Scottish. Being such I have to choose which lifestyle is right for me. There is a tug-a-war between the Hawaiian part of me and the Haole part of me. The two cultures that I consider myself, Scottish and Hawaiian, are both proud, interesting, and contain their own prescriptions toward behavior. The pidgin dialect is a major part of life in the lower class Hawaiian neighborhoods. For most children in these neighborhoods it is the language spoken at home. The other people of the islands look at this dialect as a sign of a poor education and up-bringing. My mother did not want her son associated with such a group of individuals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I started school at Maunawili School and began to pick up Pidgin and start to speak it at home she took it upon herself to change me. At this time she was teaching sixth grade at Keolu Elementary. She saw how her kids could not speak proper English, only Pidgin. Many of them also wrote in Pidgin, something I had begun to do. My mother saw this behavior and forced me to change. My parents put me in Punahou School, one of the best private schools in the nation, to facilitate this change. It may seem that she did not want me to grow up proud of my Hawaiian heritage, but that is far from the truth. She taught me to respect the culture for its beautiful aspects, the hula, and the

Emily Brontes Wuthering Heights Essay -- Emily Bronte Wuthering Heigh

Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights The female writer Emily Bronte wrote the novel 'Wuthering Heights' in 1847. Bronte's father had influenced Emily with his well-known poetry and imagination. Bronte's childhood could have also played a part in writing her novel as she used to live in the moors herself before her mother died. The North Yorkshire moors where 'Wuthering Heights' is set is a bleak, desolate and solitary place. The area was very inaccessible and it would have taken days to get to neighbouring small towns as the only method of transport was by horseback or by horse and cart. As the moor was so remote there was a limited social life and close friendships were only usually between other family members. The women of those times were expected to be married at an early age and also bear children soon after marriage. However, many women died during or soon after childbirth as the medical knowledge was very poor. Death at an early age was also not uncommon. If a mother died then it was normal for an unmarried female relative to look after the children and take the late mother's place in the home. The social classes were separate at the time the novel was set and marriage was usually within a social class. It would have been considered degrading for a rich person to marry someone with little or no inheritance and of a lower class. This class distinction meant servants were treated badly and often had to live separate to the family they worked for, sometimes out with the animals. This class separation was also in place in Santiago, Chile, at the time James Watson wrote 'Talking in Whispers'. Watson's novel was based on real events and some of the characters were meant to reflect real people.... ...next one to be killed and the risk of losing your family. The type of psychological brutality in "Wuthering Heights" is different. The brutality in this novel is more to do with social status than fear. It is apparent when Heathcliff's "father" dies and Hindley makes Heathcliff live as a servant. Hindley could not accept him as an equal he was seen as a "gypsy". This type of verbal insult, a long with when Cathy said, "It would degrade me to marry him", hurts people's minds rather than their body. Yet, "Wuthering Heights" also shows physical brutality such as when Hindley fought with Heathcliff when they were young and when Heathcliff beats his wife. Also, his treatment of Hareton is not very kind. In conclusion, both novels contain brutality but both concentrate on different aspects, and because of the setting, the reasons and effects are different.

Nutrition in Fitness and Sport

Final Case Study: A Teenage Female Champion Grace MacMillan Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Introduction Ice hockey is characterized by high intensity intermittent skating, rapid changes in velocity, lengthy duration and frequent body contact (1). The typical player performs for 15 to 20 minutes of a 60 minute game (1). Each shift lasts from 30 to 90 seconds with 4 to 4 minutes of recovery between shifts.The intensity of a particular shift is determined be the duration and the extent of the contribution from aerobic to anaerobic energy systems by the player (1). In order to accommodate the body for these high intensity bursts and length of activity the player must develop muscle strength, power and anaerobic endurance in addition to a good aerobic system (1). Hockey players tend to have a mesomorphic structure and are relatively lean to positively influence their skating performance (1). For my nutrition analysis I chose an adolescent female hockey player.As far as teenage athletes g o, AC has already more than filled her resume with an abundance of accomplishments including a gold medal from the 2012 IIHF World Women’s U18 Championship, the 2011 Tier 1 Under 19 U. S. National Championship, the 2010 Under 16 U. S. National Championship and the 2009 Atlantic Challenge Cup in addition to representing Team Nova Scotia at the 2011 Canada Winter Games. As a student at the private hockey prep school of Sattuck-St. Mary’s in Faribauly, Minnesota she is limited to a very specific selection of food on campus as she is a boarding student there.Female athletes are faced daily with the challenge of meeting the nutrient requirements for growth and development in addition to sport performance (2). Due to the wide range of physiological demands a large proportion of female athletes regularly do not meet DRI’s for a number of macro and micronutrients some of which include vitamin D, folate, vitamin E and calcium (2). The current research illustrates the cha llenges that female athletes may face, otherwise known as the â€Å"female athlete triad† which include disordered eating, amenorrhea and osteoporosis (3).Furthermore, female teenage athletes have found to have relatively low energy intake and inadequate intakes of certain nutrients which are observed to improve seasonally in correspondence to their in-season and off-season, respectively (4). Assessment Part A: Objective Data AC is a 17 year old female who is currently 68. 95kg at 1. 73m tall and has reported to have a 21% body fat composition, which equates to a normal BMI of 23. AC communicated the desire to cut weight to 65. 7kg, which equates to a normal BMI of 22 by August 1st 2012 in preparation for her next achievement of playing for Team Canada in the Olympics. In the patient’s case it would be more appropriate to use the body fat percentage to measure weight loss because the losses will be in body fat not lean body mass (5). Fortunately in preparation of this event, AC is required to fill out a daily reflection including food log, physical activity as defined by strength training, cardio and core exercise and personal reflection.Thus, from the data given to me I have chosen to pick 3 weekdays and 3 weekend days to analyze. In summary, in-season she participates twice weekly with a strength training workout for approximately one hour and ice skating (practice) every day for approximately 1 hour and 15 minutes. As part of school extra circular activities she incorporates basketball 3 times weekly for 45 minutes in addition to games once to twice weekly. During the off-season she strives to maintain 4 days per week of strength training exercise, in addition to skating twice a week and running for approximately an hour each day.The raw data can be viewed in appendix A. Part B: Analysis of the Data The analysis of AC’s daily reflection reveals that as most female athletes she does not meet the required amount of energy for her physical activity level and body structure, but due to her current goal of losing weight, restricting calories while maintaining the recommended amount of servings as per the Canada’s Food Guide does not put her at risk for any of the symptoms of the female triad.AC’s diet analysis reveals that although she is meeting her calcium requirement, other nutrients of concern as revealed by the literature review such as vitamin D, E and folate are not being met. AC is currently taking a multivitamin but was unable to describe in any detail in the interview type or contents (as her mother sends them too her from home) but the vitamin most likely supplies micronutrient needs. Furthermore, in most cases AC is effective with meal timing, especially when you look at her inclusion of mid-morning snacks most days, which tend to be the days where a morning practice or working out is has occured.In regards to AC’s recommended food guide servings, as analyzed in appendix B, she meets he r dairy servings all of the time, meat and alternative servings most of the time but only meets her fruit and vegetable and grain servings half some of the time. This further eliminates the risk of osteoporosis and protein losses, thus, analysis should focus on grain servings to promote increased carbohydrate consumption and reaching daily servings of fruits and vegetables.If we calculate AC’s carbohydrate (CHO) requirement as a recommendation based on body weight (per kg) and expressed as total grams per day considering her sport as intermittent high intensity she requires approximately 400g – 680g CHO/day. This amount can easily be adjusted daily in correspondence to the amount of exercise and energy level to accommodate weight loss. The average CHO intake was 246. 67g per day which equates to approximately 1000 Kcal per day but only nearly half of the recommended CHO consumption.As the role of protein is to build and repair tissue, consuming the recommended serving amounts is extremely important to protect herself against the risk of protein losses. If we calculate AC`s protein (PRO) requirement as a recommendation based on body weight (per kg) and expressed as total grams per day considering her sport as intermittent high intensity she requires approximately 89g – 103g PRO/day. To protect against protein losses and maintain existing muscle, timing of consumption becomes extremely important.After exercise protein sources should be consumed immediately after (stage 1) and within 2 hours after (stage 2) but should not exceed more than 1. 6g/kg per day (5). The average PRO intake was 104g per day which equates to approximately 417. 33 Kcal per day and exceeds her recommended protein intake slightly. As some dietary fat is essential to cell development and synthesis, and the recommended amounts range from 20-35% of the dietary energy intake are required.In comparison to her recommended range of fat intake as described by EatTracker, AC is n ot usually achieving her recommended amount of fat as her average fat intake was 42g per day which equates to approximately 378 Kcal, which is just less than 12% daily intake from fat. Lastly, fluids impact the regulation of body temperature, hydration and remove metabolic excretions which all improve athletic performance. Sweat rates and hydration level are affected by the duration, environmental temperature and intensity of the exercise the participant is engaged in, ergo, water needs are fairly diverse.As a regular participant in vigorous and enduring exercise AC’s fluid recommendations would be fairly high. AC reported to consume at least one cup of water usually at every meal and drinks as much as 2L over the duration of any length of exercise. Nutrition Plan and Recommendations In regards to the literature review of typical female athlete concerns, AC is an ideal patient considering she does not show any symptoms of the female athlete triad and although weight loss is d esired, she has determined an appropriate weight loss and time frame to achieve her goal by maintaining food guide recommendations while reducing energy intake.AC has described an appropriate goal of losing 3. 18kg over 8 months (as the goal was acknowledged in January) to increase athletic performance and maintain good health by reducing body fat. To improve weight loss results AC should consume a number of small frequent meals that have a high proportion of CHO to maintain blood glucose levels and moderate protein levels to ensure adequate replacement of lean protein tissue (5). Although AC is typically meeting her Food Guide recommendations, she needs to ensure adequate energy intake of approximately 2700 Kcal/day and devise energy into 5-6 small meals every day.Some days she is just barely consuming 1200 Kcal which is not enough energy to keep her body strong and maintain muscle tissue when considering the amount of physical demand on the body from the substantial amount of exer cise. An energy reduction of 500 Kcal (2700kcal/day from 3200kcal/day) is appropriate to reduce weight by approximately 0. 45kg (1lb) per week, reducing weight by approximately 3. 6kg over 8 weeks. This gives the participant approximately 24 weeks to maintain and stabilize weight loss.As AC’s physical activity participation is generally stable it is more appropriate to request stable and reduced energy intakes versus increasing physical activity duration (5). Further recommendations for AC would be to monitor weight changes during exercise to ensure adequate hydration status. Before exercise, increase fluid intake and reduce fat and fiber intake to facilitate gastric emptying and minimize GI upsets (5). During and after exercise consume fluids to replace sweat losses and maintain hydration status, which may include incorporating a sport drink to replenish water, carbohydrate and electrolyte levels.To increase consumption, ensure fluids are chilled to approximately 10 degrees Celsius (5). Advise that most liquids including milk, water, soup, 100% percent juices and sports drinks all contribute to fluid intake recommendation. * I would advise AC to increase carbohydrate and fat intake by adding a carbohydrate rich snack in the afternoon each day and increase fat of dairy products. A recommended meal plan using the ‘Beyond the Basics’ guidelines can be viewed in appendix G taking into consideration AC’s limited food choices, EER, carbohydrate, protein and fat recommendations. Appendix A: AC’s Daily ReflectionsAppendix B: Nutritional Analysis via eaTracker (Dietitians of Canada) January 7 2012 Food Group Analysis Nutrient Analysis January 10 2012 Food Group Analysis Nutrient Analysis January 16 2012 Food Group Analysis Nutrition Analysis January 21 2012 Food Group Analysis Nutrient Analysis January 23 2012 Food Group Analysis Nutrient Analysis January 30 2012 Food Group Analysis Nutrient Analysis Appendix C: Overview of Vitamin In take Analysis via eaTracker (Dietitians of Canada) Appendix D: Estimate Energy Requirements Calculation Female (age 9-18) = 135. 3 – 30. 8 x Age + [PA x (10. 0 x Wt. + 934 x Ht. )] + 25 = 135. 3 – 30. x Age + [1. 56 (10. 0 x 68. 95kg + 934 x 1. 73m)] + 25 = 3233 kcal/day ? 3200 kcal/day Appendix E: Carbohydrate Requirements As a percent of 3200 Kcal and expressed as total grams per day = 55 – 60% x 3200Kcal = 1760 – 1920Kcal / day = 1760 – 1920 Kcal / 4 Kcal/g ? 440 – 480 g CHO/day As a recommendation based on body weight (per kg) and expressed as total grams per day considering her sport as intermittent high intensity = 6 – 10g/kg x 68. 95kg = 413. 7g – 689. 5g CHO/day ? 400g – 680g CHO/day Appendix F: Protein Requirements As a recommendation based on body weight (per kg) and expressed as total grams per day = 1. 3g/kg – 1. g/kg x 68. 95kg = 89. 64g – 103. 43g PRO/day ? 89g – 103g PRO/day Appendix G : Meal Plan Breakfast 1 cup 100% fruit juice, 1 large banana, 1 slice French toast, 2 tbsp maple syrup, 1 cup yogurt Morning Snack 1 Instant Oatmeal pouch, 2 tbsp peanut butter, 1 med. apple Lunch 1 cups 2% milk, 1 cup pasta, ? cup ground beef, ? cup tomato sauce, 1 cup strawberries Afternoon Snack 12 crackers, 1 medium orange Supper 1 cup 2% milk, 1 cup rice, 1 chicken breast, ? cup carrots, ? cup kernel corn Evening snack 24 tortilla chips, ? cup salsa Appendix H: Meal Plan Analysis via eaTracker (Dietitians of Canada) Food Group Analysis of Meal Plan:Nutrient Analysis References 1. Montgomery DL. Physiology of Ice Hockey. Sports Med. 1988;5(2):99-126. 2. Gibson JC, Stuard-Hill L, Martin S and Gaul C. Nutritional status of junior elite Canadian female soccer athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2011;21(6):507-14. 3. Gabel K. Special nutritional concerns for the female athlete. ACSM. 2006;5(4):187-191. 4. Ziegler P et al. Nutritional status of teenage female competitive figure s katers. J Amer Diet Assoc. 2002;102(3):374-379. 5. Williams MH. Nutrition for Health, Fitness and Sport. 9th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc; 2010. 6. Dufour, A. Introduction to Protein Powerpoint.Bedford, MSVU; 2012. 7. Dufour, A. Practical Applications of Protein (PRO) Powerpoint. Bedford, MSVU; 2012. 8. Convertino, V. A, Armstrong L. E. , Coyle, W. F. , et al. (1996). American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: Exercise and Fluid Replacement. American College of Sports Medicine, 517-521. 9. Dufour, A. Energy Metabolism and Carbohydrates Powerpoint. Bedford, MSVU; 2011. 10. Dieticians of Canada. EatTracker. Dieticians of Canada; 2012. 11. Canadian Diabetes Association. Beyond the Basics: Meal Planning for Healthy Eating, Diabetes Prevention and Management, Version 2. Toronto: Canadian Diabetes Association; 2005.

Comparing ‘The Crucible’ with ‘Macbeth’ Essay

My practical work in November 2002 was for option 2. it was a piece of scripted performance and was based on the theme of witches and the supernatural.  My contribution to the performance was a character called Marry Warren. I had to help a character called John Proctor; this is because Marry Warren is trying to get out of the group of girls. Marry Warren then betrays John Procter and joins the group of girls again, because of Abigail was making a fool out of Marry Warren. To help me in my work, I looked for information in the video. I also read a play called ‘Macbeth’, written by William Shakespeare.  Ã¢â‚¬ËœMacbeth’ was set in Scotland in the 17th centaury. The system of government at the time was that of a monarchy in which the king makes the laws and punishes people. The people would fight for the king. The culture at that time was one is which people believed in witches and the supernatural. Witches were seen as prophets, they were powerful symbols for soldiers. However, ‘The Crucible’ was set in Salem, Massachusetts, USA in the 17th centaury. The system of government at the time was that of theocracy in which people believed in the bible and followed it. Judges were called into decide punishments. Anyone accused of heretical beliefs could be punished. At that time people believed the devil could pass anyone and cause him or her to say or do anything. The genre for ‘Macbeth’ is gothic tragedy. The theme for the play is supernatural, deceiving appearances and prophecy. The supernatural was that the witches are more what we expect, conventional during those times. Sources of information did not shock Macbeth as we expected. The deceiving appearances of witches were the first main incident. The witches were trying to manipulate Macbeth. The prophecy of the play suggests people looking for signs to guide them. On the other hand, the genre for ‘The Crucible’ is a historical fiction melodrama. The theme for ‘The Crucible’ is deception, supernatural and hysteria. The deception in ‘The Crucible’ is that there were no actual witches which added to the hysteria. Supernatural in ‘The Crucible’ was that witches were seen as people working with the devil also the town people are afraid of what witches symbolised. The hysteria in ‘The Crucible’ was once accusations began people feared devil had arrived. This meant their right were ignored in order to find the cause of problem. The performance style for ‘Macbeth’ is partly classical. Macbeth is a war hero yet suddenly loves having powers. Facial expressions and body movement were very important. Elizabethian theatre did not have any dramatic lighting or sound effects. Therefore much of the acting and events are exaggerated.  However, ‘The Crucible’ performance style is classical. As the genre is mellow drama, the acting has to be exaggerated to capture the hysteria. In ‘The Crucible’ Abigail dramatically changes her acting style to meet her needs. Abigail often makes clear how she feels or over exaggerated her movement to make her aim clear.

Explore Shakespeare(TM)s Presentation of Lady Macbeth Essay

In the time Shakespeare was writing Macbeth there were many new ideas and concepts coming forward and the country was changing. There was growing tension between parliament and the King, resulting in many debates about kingship and what makes a good king and growing tension between Protestants and Catholics, resulting in plots and rebellion like the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. There were sharp divisions between rich and poor and society at the time was dominated by men. The church was very influential. Plays at the time often reflected political situations and taught moral lessons, and Macbeth, written in the early 1600s, echoes all the changes and tension present in the country at the time. In particular, Shakespeare focuses on the issues of kingship through Macbeth’s struggles to, and on, the throne but it is Lady Macbeth that demonstrates how women were perceived in the male-dominated culture and the links between good and evil that are subtly examined by Shakespeare throughout the play. The way that women were perceived in Shakespeare’s time is shown by widespread belief in witchcraft. Witches were believed to be women who had sold their soul to the devil in exchange for doing evil deeds. This suggests that women at the time could not be too powerful or independent and that women were maybe the inferior sex as they were easily coaxed into evil. The widespread belief in the supernatural is repeated often in Macbeth, often in the form of the three witches. The opening scene features the three witches hinting that there is lots of wrongdoing to come in the play. The three witches are also all women, showing that women were often behind evil-doing. How women were perceived and expected to behave is further suggested when Lady Macbeth receives Macbeth’s letter recounting his encounter with the witches. At the beginning of the scene Lady Macbeth is seen to be acting conventionally, reading a letter that has been sent by her husband whilst he is away in battle. This is how women were expected to behave – to wait patiently for their husbands to return and to care for the home and family. So far she is acting as any women should but after reading the letter, Lady Macbeth’s attitude quickly changes. Instead of acting conventionally, she begins to show more masculine traits. She thinks that Macbeth is â€Å"too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness to catch the nearest way† which is not how a conventional women would think. She is thinking of murder which would be too ruthless and brutal for a conventional woman to contemplate. This also shows that Lady Macbeth is taking the manly role rather than Macbeth, as Macbeth is described as being too kind, a trait that is more womanly than masculine. Her unconventional behaviour continues when she decides to persuade Macbeth to kill to fulfil the witches’ prophecies. â€Å"Hie thee hither, that I may pour my spirits in thine ear† she commands of the absent Macbeth. She is seeking to control Macbeth and give him orders, but wives of the time were expected to obey their husbands. There is also a suggestion that she is evil and supernatural, as she has ‘spirits’ to pour into Macbeth but this may be a suggestion that women were perceived as being manipulative. The letter itself is an important part in demonstrating what is going on inside the characters’ minds. The letter is written in prose; Shakespeare uses prose for low characters or character with an abnormal state of mind. This suggests that either Lady Macbeth or Macbeth are not thinking how they should, which links back to the fact that Lady Macbeth is acting eccentrically, or that they are planning to perform a low deed – the murder of King Duncan for their own gain. The language used by Lady Macbeth further suggests the mindset that she is in. She commands â€Å"come, you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here† which uses harsh and unpleasant language, showing how Lady Macbeth is acting. It is also in the imperative, so she is making an order which is not a feminine thing to do. Once Macbeth enters, Lady Macbeth takes control of the situation. â€Å"Look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under’t† she commands Macbeth whom she should be obeying, not ordering around. The line itself is a biblical metaphor which brings in the idea that Lady Macbeth is like Eve in the Garden of Eden – she places temptation and evil in front of Macbeth which he otherwise would not have contemplated doing. Lady Macbeth takes complete control of the situation when she excluded Macbeth from any of the planning of the deed – â€Å"Leave all the rest to me†. She is not acting like a woman here as she is being stronger in spirit than a man and she is disobeying her husband. Lady Macbeth’s masculinity is further explored when she manipulates Macbeth into agreeing to the murder by questioning his masculinity. â€Å"When you durst do it, then you were a man†, she is saying that when he thought up the idea of killing the king he was being manly but now, when he is backing out of it, he is not. The idea that violence equates to masculinity is shown by Macbeth’s adoration of Lady Macbeth’s masculine qualities. After she says that she would have â€Å"dash’d the brains out† of a baby if she had said she would, Macbeth says â€Å"For thy undaunted mettle should compose nothing but males† as he believes that she is so masculine inside that she cannot even create anything feminine. Due to this, Lady Macbeth cannot be acting as a woman should be as violence and aggression were not feminine qualities. The language she uses in the scene is taunting as she is mocking Macbeth. She likens Macbeth to â€Å"the poor cat i’ the adage† making him an object of pity and stupidity and so ridiculing him and undermining his masculinity. A woman of the time should not be acting like this as they were expected to be obedient to the husband’s wishes and not to manipulate them as Lady Macbeth is doing. As Lady Macbeth says that she would dash a baby’s brain out, this brings to mind the idea of witches, as typical ingredients to a potion or spell may include objects from innocent children. It may have also been believed that witches stole and killed infants and as Lady Macbeth is willing to do so, it suggests that she is a like a witch. Her lack of a child with Macbeth might also have made her more willing to suggest that she would kill a baby as she would not have any maternal urges towards sheltering any babies. Macbeth goes to commit the murder whilst Lady Macbeth stays behind wondering how he is faring. At this point, Lady Macbeth can be said to act conventionally as she is waiting for her husband to return from doing an unpleasant act that was deemed unacceptable for women to do. Her streak of femininity is continued as she begins to worry. â€Å"Alack, I am afraid they have awaked† she says to herself showing that she is worrying about either the plan or Macbeth. If she is worrying about the plan failing, that could be argued to be a feminine trait as typically women worry more than men. If she is worrying about Macbeth and his safety, this would mean she is acting as a conventional wife as she is showing concern for her husband, as a wife should do. Some vulnerability is shown by Lady Macbeth as she tells of her reason why she could not have committed the murder herself. â€Å"Had he not resembled my father as he slept, I had done ‘t† she says, demonstrating that she has a feminine side as she was obviously fond of her father – affection being a feminine trait. Once Macbeth returns from the deed however, Lady Macbeth’s masculine traits return as she takes control of the situation to ensure their plan goes without a glitch. When Macbeth seems to regret killing Duncan, Lady Macbeth chastises him; when he thinks that the blood on his hands is a sorry sight she tells him â€Å"a foolish thought, to say a sorry sight† as she believes that it was not a bad thing to commit the crime. This means that she has returned to being masculine as a women would be shocked at the thought of murder and would be jolted by the blood on Macbeth’s hands. The idea of witchcraft comes up when Macbeth says he â€Å"could not say â€Å"Amen,† when they did say â€Å"God bless us!†. Being unable to say a prayer was said to be a sign of being bewitched, so Macbeth could be under Lady Macbeth’s spell as he is committing the murder against his will and it is only due to her manipulation that he is doing it. It could also be said that Lady Macbeth is acting like Eve as she has placed the temptation of a bad deed in front of Macbeth and coaxed him into doing it, like Eve did to Adam in the Garden of Eden. While she is trying to calm Macbeth she uses lots of imperative language. â€Å"Consider it not so deeply† she commands him. Once again it is Lady Macbeth doing all the commanding when it should be Macbeth that should be commanding her. Shakespeare uses stagecraft to show the audience Lady Macbeth’s contribution to the murder. She takes the daggers from Macbeth once he refuses to, showing the audience that she is in control and that she has an equal part in the murder as Macbeth and suggests that she will suffer the same consequences for the deed. After the murder has taken place, others find out that the king is dead. To protect both her and Macbeth, Lady Macbeth uses her femininity. With the others discussing the murder, she pretends she knows nothing of it and the horror of it makes her swoon; â€Å"Help me hence, ho!† she cries as she faints. Earlier on, Macduff had said that the news of the murder would kill a woman instantly, so Lady Macbeth is fulfilling this stereotype that women were unable to cope with bad news. This also helps to divert the suspicion from herself and her husband as it is showing the news of Duncan’s death is new to her. Her manipulation of the situation and of the men present shows how she may be perceived as evil as she seems to be innocent when she in fact is guilty. This links back to the perceptions of witches who would take normal human forms but be evil beneath the innocent faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ade. With the king murdered, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth take the throne. Their perceived superiority is shown by the use of the Royal ‘we’. â€Å"Ourself will mingle with society† Macbeth says to his guests at the banquet he throws in his honour, suggesting he perceives himself to be royalty, although it is not rightfully his. At this time, both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are acting conventionally – he is being the perfect host, while she is behaving as a woman should, staying out of the way until her husband summons her. â€Å"Our hostess keeps her state, but in best time we will require her welcome† Macbeth says to his guests, suggesting that he is in control of what Lady Macbeth does. This shows that Lady Macbeth is acting as a wife of the time should be. Nevertheless, Lady Macbeth soon begins to act unconventionally when Macbeth begins to lose control of the situation and draws suspicion towards themselves of the murders that they have committed. As Macbeth hallucinates and believes he is seeing the ghost of Banquo, Lady Macbeth tried to persuade him into acting normally. â€Å"Are you a man?† she questions him, taunting his lack of masculinity at his fear of his own imagination. This is not how women of the time should be acting as they should be comforting their husbands rather than mocking them; it was their duty to care for the home and the family. Throughout the play, Lady Macbeth is shown as a strong and masculine character but after the murders, she begins to lose her mind. A doctor is summoned as she is sleepwalking; this is â€Å"a great perturbation in nature, to receive at once the benefit of sleep, and do the effects of watching†. This is saying that it is unnatural to sleep and walk and this links back to the idea of witchcraft. People who were bewitched or possessed would act unnaturally, suggesting that Lady Macbeth is bewitched. To show the audience that Lady Macbeth is losing her mind, Shakespeare changes the language that she uses. During her sleepwalking speech, Lady Macbeth talks in prose, rather than blank verse to show to the audience Lady Macbeth’s descent into madness. Shakespeare also employs stagecraft to show the audience what Lady Macbeth is feeling. While she is sleepwalking, she performs the action of washing her hands – ‘Yet here’s a spot†¦ Out, damned spot! Out, I say!’. This is to show the audience that she is trying to wash the blood off of her hands and so wash herself free of the guilt she feels for the murders. Through the entire play, Lady Macbeth is shown to have two sides, to have a seemingly innocent side and then to have a masculine, manipulative and evil side. With this manly and sinful streak, Lady Macbeth managed to influence her husband into committing crimes that he would not have committed on his own willpower. Because of this, Lady Macbeth could be said to be the one to blame for all the crimes that her husband committed; Macbeth can be said to be a â€Å"butcher† and Lady Macbeth his â€Å"fiendlike queen†. Rarely does Lady Macbeth act as women should act and this could be Shakespeare showing that women have an immoral and controlling side which they do not show.